ANTHONY GOTTLIEB - The tolerant philosopher: why Pierre Bayle is the forgotten figure of the Enlightenment
Voltaire said he was
the greatest reasoner who ever set pen to paper. But is there a twist to
Bayle's thinking?
Why is there so much
wickedness and suffering in the world? Bayle went through the standard
theological answers to this question and knocked down each one, often with a
vivid analogy. Is God absolved of man’s evil by His gift of free will – which
makes everything man’s fault? No, Bayle answered: that would be like giving a
knife to a man when you know he will use it to commit murder. The gift does not
absolve the giver. Did God permit man to rebel so that He could send Jesus as a
redeemer? That, Bayle replied, would make God “like a father who allows his
children to break their legs so that he can show everyone his great skill in
mending their broken bones”.
The real answer, he
insisted, is that we cannot comprehend why God allows evil. A true Christian
must simply accept that He does. The German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz, who was Bayle’s contemporary, was so upset by these arguments that he
devoted the Theodicy, his only full-length philosophical book, to
refuting them. Leibniz was sure that he could offer satisfactory excuses
on God’s behalf and explain exactly why He permitted evil to exist.
Pierre Bayle, a French thinker who died in Rotterdam in 1706, is the forgotten hero of the
Enlightenment. His name sometimes rings a bell for historians of
philosophy, but apart from them I cannot remember when I last met
anyone who had heard of him. In the 18th century, however, Bayle’s
admirers included Frederick the Great, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin
and Voltaire.
They revered him for his defence of religious liberty and
his genius for undermining conventional ideas. Voltaire said that the “immortal”
Bayle was the greatest reasoner who ever set pen to paper.
Immortality, it seems,
does not always last. One reason for Bayle’s eclipse is that his ideas no
longer seem novel or shocking; moreover, his writings digress uncontrollably.
This is not a winning combination. His Historical and Critical
Dictionary – once among the commonest books in northern European homes
– is a jumble of more than six million words, most of which come in rambling
footnotes. Published between 1697 and 1702, it was a unique source of information
and argument at that time. Now we have Wikipedia. Bayle’s pioneering tract on
religious freedom is titled A Philosophical Commentary on These Words
of the Gospel, Luke 14:23, “Compel Them to Come In, That My House May Be Full”.
If you think the title is unwieldy, you should see the book.
Bayle’s passion for
religious liberty reflected his circumstances. Unlike better-known champions of
tolerance such as Voltaire or John Locke, he had first-hand experience of
persecution. He was the son of a poor Calvinist pastor in a small French town
near the Spanish border. Protestants such as the Bayles were a harassed
minority in France, where roughly 95 per cent of the population was Catholic.
Thousands of Bayle’s
co-religionists had been massacred in the late 16th century, and even though
Protestants won some freedoms at the end of the French wars of religion in
1598, their position worsened during Bayle’s lifetime. He fled to the
Netherlands in 1681, when he was in his early thirties. A few years later, one
of his brothers was arrested and died in a French prison. If he had converted
to Catholicism, he would have been released. Bayle never got over his brother’s
death.
Bayle had the
misfortune to be not only a heretic in Catholic eyes, but also an apostate, for
which the punishments were still worse. In his youth, he had briefly been
convinced by the intellectual case for Catholicism and had converted. After
about a year and a half as a Catholic, however, he decided that he had been
mistaken and switched back. He followed his conscience, and this became the
linchpin of his case against persecution. Why would God have given us a
conscience if He did not mean us to use it?
Even if an alleged
heretic, such as Bayle, was in error and was worshipping the wrong God, or
worshipping Him in the wrong way, might this not be an honest mistake? He used
a well-known example of mistaken identity to make his point. The wife of the
peasant Martin Guerre sincerely believed an impostor to be her long-lost
husband. When the real Martin Guerre returned to his village, the impostor
confessed and was executed for adultery and fraud. But Guerre’s wife went
unpunished, because her error had been made in good faith. Bayle reasoned that
“heretics” should be treated in the same way. If they had searched diligently
for the truth and acted conscientiously, they were guilty of no sin. Nobody
should punish them or try to compel them to act against their honest beliefs.
At the time, this sort
of tolerance was regarded as tantamount to heresy by all too many theologians.
According to influential writings by St Augustine, Jesus had sanctioned
religious compulsion in the remark from the Gospel of Luke quoted in the title
of Bayle’s book on the topic. Bayle demonstrated at length that St Augustine
had read too much into the biblical passage and had misinterpreted
Jesus’s words. Besides, Bayle forcefully pointed out that every so-called
heretic thinks that he is a true believer and that it is others who are the
heretics. So, if persecution is permitted, every religious group will feel
entitled to harass all other groups, and the result will be constant
bloodshed. This does not seem very Christian.
The upshot of Bayle’s
argument was that every Christian sect, and all other faiths, too, should be
left alone to believe whatever they want, provided they do not interfere with
others. Locke, who was writing on the subject at around the same time as Bayle,
maintained something similar but did not go quite so far. Locke was
uncomfortable with Eastern religions in which divine revelation did not play a
significant part. And he worried that Catholics were politically dangerous,
because they owed primary allegiance to the pope rather than to their national
sovereign. For Locke, Muslims were also likely troublemakers, if they were
loyal to the Ottoman emperor. Yet Bayle does not seem to have
been particularly bothered by the potential subversiveness of Catholics and
Muslims, or by the unfamiliar faiths of Asians. Religion was personal and that
was that.
Nor was Bayle much
troubled by the notion of atheism, either, which is perhaps the most modern
thing about him. Locke maintained that unbelief cannot be tolerated, because it
is bound to lead to the moral collapse of any society foolish enough to allow
it. Voltaire thought the same. Bayle seems to have been the first person in the
Christian world to deny this conventional opinion. Morality, he reasoned, can
exist perfectly well without religion.
Rather typically, he
made this shocking claim in the course of a meandering digression. It came
in his first book, which was ostensibly about comets and contained, as
Bayle acknowledged, “a strange heap of thoughts”. When an exceptionally
bright comet was spotted by a German astronomer in late 1680, it caused a
panic. Comets had presaged countless disasters, from the fall of Carthage to
the Norman invasion of Britain, or so it was widely believed. Hundreds of
alarmist pamphlets were published across Europe and in North America,
announcing that the new comet was a dire warning from God to repent
immediately.
Bayle set out to show
that it would be against God’s nature to use celestial phenomena to send
messages to mankind. With typical thoroughness, he offered eight main arguments
for this conclusion, supported them with several hundred texts, ancient,
medieval and modern, and made sideswipes at dozens of other superstitions along
the way.
The argument of which
he was most proud was original, effective and simple. It was that any such
divine warnings would be bound to backfire and achieve the opposite of what God
supposedly intended. It was easy to show
from scripture that God abhorred the worship of false gods. According to the
prophets, idolatry seemed to rile Him even more than murder, theft or adultery.
Yet most people on the planet are not Christians. As Bayle put it, the majority
of human beings “remain idolators or have become Mohammedans”. So, if God put
awe-inspiring warnings in the sky, most people would just embrace their false
religions even more fervently. Why would He send harbingers of doom that could
only “reanimate false and sacrilegious devotion almost everywhere on Earth” and
“increase the number of pilgrims to Mecca”?
Perhaps, Bayle mused,
someone will say that atheism is even worse than idolatry, so God might arrange
fiery displays in order to ensure that people embraced some religion rather
than none. It was here that he made his revolutionary suggestion about religion
and morality. People generally thought that atheism was disastrous for society
because unbelievers had no incentive to be good. Yet Bayle pointed out
that people’s behaviour reflects their character, desires and circumstances,
rather than the religious principles to which they pay lip-service at weekends.
As one moralist put it in the 18th century: “It ought not to appear more
strange to us that an atheist should be a quiet moral man, than that a
Christian should lead a very wicked life.”.. read more:
http://www.newstatesman.com/culture/books/2016/08/tolerant-philosopher-why-pierre-bayle-forgotten-figure-enlightenment
Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able?
Then he is not omnipotent.
Is he able, but not willing?
Then he is malevolent.
Is he both able, and willing?
Then whence cometh evil?
Is he neither able nor willing?
Then why call him God?